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请用英语解释下列名词，并举例说明：（每题8分，共40分）

1.secondlanguage

Languagetransfer(alsoknownasL1interference,linguisticinterference,andcross-linguisticinfluence)referstospeakersorwritersapplyingknowledgefromonelanguagetoanotherlanguage.Itisthetransferoflinguisticfeaturesbetweenlanguagesinthespeechrepertoireofabilingualormultilingualindividual,whetherfromfirsttosecond,secondtofirstormanyotherrelationships.

Whentherelevantunitorstructureofbothlanguagesisthedifferent,linguisticinterferenceasasourceoferrorscanresultinnegativetransfer.Forexample,Germanlearnerswhosaid‘Ihavehungry’for‘Iamhungry’wouldbedisplayingnegativetransfer.

3.informalL2learning

Therelationshipbetweeninput,interactionandoutputiscloselyinterrelated.

Inputisoneofthemostimportantelementsintheprocessofsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA).AsGass(1997)pointsout,second-languagelearningsimplycannottakeplacewithoutinputofsomesort.Sincethen,specificissueshavebeenactivelydebatedinSLAonthenatureofinputandinputprocessing:

(1)Theamountofinputthatisnecessaryforlanguageacquisition,

(2)Variousattributesofinputandhowtheymayfacilitateorhinderacquisition,and

(3)Instructionalmethodsthatmayenhanceinput.

Therearetwokindsofinput.ApperceivedinputcharacterizestheawarenessofnewL2informationthatisnotyetpartofthelearner’sL2repertoire.Comprehendedinputgoesonestepbeyondrecognition.Itmaybeanalyzedandhasthepotentialofbeingassimilatedthroughtheprocessofintake.Psycholinguisticprocessingoccursatthisstagewherenewinformationmaybematchedagainstexistingstoredknowledge.Thenextstage,interaction,involvesstorageofnewinformationforlateruse,hypothesisformulation,and/confirm/iationorreformulationofexistinghypotheses.Thefinalstage,output,isanovertmanifestation"oftheacquisitionprocess.Thedifferentstagesmaybeinfluencedbyanumberoffactors,suchassaliencyandfrequency,priorknowledge,andattention,aswellasbyaffectivefactors.ThecentralityofinteractionisanessentiallinkbetweeninputandoutputinL2development.Outputisthelearner’sovertmanifestationofL2knowledge,andmaybeinfluencedbyfactorssuchasconfidenceandstrengthofknowledgerepresentation.InputservesasatriggerforinnateprinciplesofUGandtosetlanguageUGandtosetlanguage-specificparameters.Allinternalknowledgecomesfrominteraction.Outputishowthelearnermediateshighercognition.Interactionprovidesnegativeevidence.

2.Whatarethekeyassumptionsoftask-basedlanguageteaching?

Task-basedlanguageteachingisastudent-centeredapproachtosecondlanguageinstruction.Itisanoffshootofthecommunicativeapproach,whereinactivitiesfocusonhavingstudentsuseauthentictargetlanguageinordertocompletemeaningfultasks,i.e.situationstheymightencounterintherealworldandotherproject-basedassignments.Thisprojectcouldincludevisitingthedoctor,makingaphonecall,conductinganinterviewinordertofindanswerstospecificquestionsorgatheringinformationtomakeaposteroradvertisement.

Intask-basedteaching,thecenterofthelearningprocessmovestothestudentsthemselvesandallowsthemtocometotherealizationthatlanguageisatooltotackleand(re)solvereal-worldproblems.Theprocessoftask-basedlearningitselfteachesimportantskills.Studentslearnhowtoaskquestions,howtonegotiatemeaningandhowtointeractinandworkwithingroups.Withinthisgroupwork,theyareabletoobservedifferentapproachestoproblemsolvingaswellastolearnhowothersthinkandmakedecisions.Theseareallskillsthatourstudentswillneedinordertobesuccessfulintherealworld,regardlessofwhichlanguage(s)theyusethere.Inaddition,task-basedteachingprovidesstudentswiththelinguisticcomponentstheywillneedtoaccomplishthesereal-worldtasks.Theseinclude:Howtointroducethemselves,howtotalkaboutthemselves,theirfamilies,theirinterests,theirlikesanddislikes,theirneeds,etc.intherightsocio-culturalcontext.Bymovingthefocusawayfrommechanicaldrills—althoughsuchdrillsdostillhavetheirplaceeventodayinlanguageteaching,especiallywhenteachinghighlyinflectedlanguages—task-basedteachingfocusesoncommunicationandinteraction,usingappropriatelanguageatthecorrecttime.

Allinall,keyassumptionsoftask-basedlanguageteachingareasfollows:

(1)Focusonprocess.

(2)Emphasisoncommunicationandmeaning.

(3)Languagelearnedbyinteractingcommunicativelyandpurposefully.

(4)Activitiesandtaskscanbeachievedinreallifeandhaveapedagogicalpurpose.

(5)Activitiesandtasksofatask-basedsyllabusaresequencedaccordingtodifficulty.